The one and only Holy Bible of Graphics Programming. If you're starting to learn computer graphics, just study through the entire site and do the examples one by one. It doesn't matter one bit that it uses a slightly outdated API called OpenGL - you're supposed to learn how to render things first, not about some weird obscure hardware / driver details!

After you've learned it, you can start learning CUDA if you want to do some more low-level compute stuff on the GPU (sorry, but you should just buy an NVIDIA card, CUDA is just that good). Or if you actually want to just make things but want to use a nicer cross-platform graphics API than OpenGL, then I recommend SDL3. (Or use Metal if you want to make macOS exclusive apps - it's actually a quite nice API)

Vulkan or DX12 are currently flawed APIs that are unnecessarily complex and doesn't even match the performance characteristics of current-gen hardware anymore. (see the titular post: https://www.sebastianaaltonen.com/blog/no-graphics-api). However if you want a computer graphics career (either in the game industry or in other niche domains) having experience with these APIs will be beneficial since these are what many production apps are currently stuck with - though honestly the job market for graphics really suck nowadays. (The biggest sector was triple-A game companies with their own engines, but the game industry is imploding right now...)

Cem Yuksel's lecture videos for Interactive Computer Graphics at the University of Utah are another free and fantastic resource. https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLplnkTzzqsZS3R5DjmCQs...

If you want to use the learned knowledge I would recommend to use something like Sokol [0] or use the SDL-GPU API [1]. While Sokol is more higher level both can be used. Otherwise learn opengl is a really good introduction.

[0] https://github.com/floooh/sokol [1] https://wiki.libsdl.org/SDL3/CategoryGPU

Shaders used to not make any sense to me. The tutorial writes a simple expression and boom the screen is displaying all kinds of funky things.

Then I realized you're just writing code that executes on all pixels sequentially. That made it easier to understand

> executes on all pixels sequentially

or in parallel?

In 2026: Please don't learn this; it's obsolete. Learn Vulkan (Or another modern API; or how to build engines on top of them; or how to write shaders; or how to do GPU compute using CUDA etc)

Im the author of vkguide.dev and i disagree. I wrote that tutorial specifically for people that have already gone through learnopengl and want to learn vulkan. The core problem with the modern apis is that they are so incredibly complicated that they will kill any newbie on the spot. When the student still doesnt really know what a mesh is, having them setup GPU side memory allocators and graphics compute pipelines is absurd.

Opengl meanwhile is significantly easier, and will give them the important terminology and math required to do graphics. Once the student has learned opengl and wrote a small renderer with a few basic techniques, moving to vulkan or DX12 will happen far more smoothly.

In particular, learnopengl explains a lot of basics like transformation coordinates, what a mesh is, and other similar "basic knowledge", while all vulkan and dx12 tutorials skip through that because they are meant for a much more experienced audience.

The problem with most modern "how to learn graphics programming" guides is that they over index on "low level GPU programming" and under index on important foundational 3D graphics concepts. Transformations and coordinate systems, model space, world space, view space, clip space, normalized device coordinates, screen space, concepts like parallel vs. perspective projection, viewport and viewport transformation, colors, lighting, materials, reflection, blending, antialiasing, texture mapping, various buffer types, tessellation...

You want to start with OpenGL because the API is organized roughly around these high level concepts. Starting with something like Vulkan means you're dropped straight into hundreds of lines of low level boilerplate setting up VkCommandBuffers and VkRenderPasses and VkPipelines and shaders, and all this GPU programming, and it's all just bewildering if you're used to thinking about things at the high level first, or just want to draw a fucking triangle on the screen.

> The core problem with the modern apis is that they are so incredibly complicated that they will kill any newbie on the spot.

I would agree if by modern you mean DX12 or Vulkan, but WebGPU (and maybe even Metal) are quite decent.

WebGPU has the issue that feature/capability-wise it is essentially 5 years behind OpenGL 4.6, which came out 8 years ago. And the other downside being that it adopted old Vulkan concepts that even Vulkan started to ditch, like render passes and static pipelines.

Without any sort of proper debugging tools.

OpenGL is not obsolete and is totally fine for many use cases. Vulkan is way too complicated and cumbersome for many.

Even if OpenGL doesn't get new features what exists now will continue to work for decades.

I do agree Vulkan is too cumbersome, but OpenGL is definitely obsolete.

The OpenGL API with its binding-based approach is also very confusing for beginners, but the replacement Direct State Access API came too late (after Apple already decided they would deprecate OpenGL, so it never got supported on macOS).

And the fact that the GLSL parser and compiler are part of the driver means there are tons of hardware-specific bugs and miscompilations. Intel integrated drivers on Windows are notorious for being especially buggy.

All of those make OpenGL a pretty poor target for learning. Personally, I would recommend WebGPU to people who want to get into graphics programming. It's very similar to DirectX/Metal, and like a more streamlined Vulkan. The WGPU implementation of WebGPU has a C API, which also has C++ headers, and a native Rust API. And you can also use WebGPU in your browser from JavaScript, if you don't know any native languages.

> Personally, I would recommend WebGPU to people who want to get into graphics programming.

Unfortunately WebGPU is like 5 years behind OpenGL 4.6, which is already 8 years old. WebGPU is pretty ancient.

WebGPU only got started in 2021, so Im not sure what you mean. Could you explain? (Or are you thinking of WebGL?)

WebGPU is newer, but lacks modern functionality because it was made to support ancient smartphones. That's great if you want to support ancient smartphones, but not if you want to utilize modern desktop GPUs.

Thanks, that makes sense

What is the current status of WebGPU support in browsers? I tried to get into it a while ago go, when the writing was already on the wall for WebGL. But WebGPU just wasn't there yet, so I had to stick with WebGL.

As always, a decade behind current hardware capabilities andnl browser vendors refuse to have debugging tools.

You need a native build for proper GPU debugging, or do shader printf debugging style.

However, it is what is available.

The problem with OpenGL isn't so much that its programming model is outdated, but that it is an incredibly confusing and (in many places) just plain badly designed API (just look at VAOs, it's hard to come up with a more broken and useless feature - some of the problems have been salvaged on more recent OpenGL versions, but those are not portable to macOS or GLES3.x).

Another (related) problem is that the many sediment layers that have accumulated over nearly three decades are not clearly separated (and Vulkan is starting to suffer from the same problem btw, there's always at least five different ways to do the same thing, three of which are outdated or not recommended to be used on specific GPU architectures, and the other two have complicated relationships and interdependencies with other redundant or optional features, it's apparently some sort of Khronos curse to always create the biggest possible mess when it comes to 3D APIs).

On Windows (maybe even on Linux via Proton), starting with D3D11 makes a lot more sense, or on macOS with Metal v1. Both APIs are 'close enough' to modern 3D APIs to carry a lot of the knowledge over, but without being too low-level like Vulkan or D3D12, WebGPU running in browsers is also a good choice (even though it inherits some bad design decisions from Vulkan 1.0 when it comes to resource bindings, and is in some places actually slower than WebGL2).

I think the dark side of OpenGL for beginning graphics programming is that debugging can be really frustrating! I really think learnopengl.com should have a mandatory section for how to use RenderDoc (https://renderdoc.org/) - it's night and day if you know how to use it.

DX11 suffers from the problem that there aren't that much high quality material comparable to learnopengl.com - I really don't like RasterTek which just dumps code at you without explaining things properly. Same for Metal - the best way would be to just download and read the example source code from the official Apple site, but it's rather unfriendly for beginners.

I still think that OpenGL is a better place to start learning 3D because there is so much less bookkeeping to do regarding memory and concurrency vs. Vulkan. I'm working on a "Post-Modern OpenGL" tutorial that exclusively teaches the most "modern" (merely a decade old) APIs and practices of GL 4.6. But, writing is slow going...

If you are going to use Vulkan, check out https://howtovulkan.com/ Vulkan started with a lot of compromises to make mobile hardware happy at the expense of making everything overly complicated on desktop. Over the past decade, desktop devs have managed to get a lot of features added to make Vulkan on desktop more sane. How To Vulkan covers that newer approach. This recent video "It's Not About the API" https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7bSzp-QildA shows how simple it can be if you let it.

And, if you are on a Mac, folks who use Metal like it a lot. Don't worry about lock-in. Once you learn the basics, knowledge is easily transferable to DX12 and Vulkan. You should plan to write 3 or 4 renderers to throw away anyway :P

> I'm working on a "Post-Modern OpenGL" tutorial that exclusively teaches the most "modern" (merely a decade old) APIs and practices of GL 4.6. But, writing is slow going...

Is it the AZDO stuff? Quite interested, since there isn't really much information on the Internet about it rather than some slides and GDC videos.

Yep. It's my thesis that early GL APIs feel beginner-friendly because they are so hand-holdy, one-step-at-a-time. But, they end up more complicated when you get serious and they instill bad practices.

Instead, the "modern" APIs allow you to leverage your pre-existing knowledge of "allocate arrays of structs and start indexing them." That's not trivial. But, it is already familiar. And, it ends up a lot better in the end compared to "Invoke whole lot of functions to manipulate a hidden state machine."

You can find a little info on Modern OpenGL at https://github.com/fendevel/Guide-to-Modern-OpenGL-Functions, https://juandiegomontoya.github.io/modern_opengl.html, https://ktstephano.github.io/, https://patrick-is.cool/posts/2025/on-vaos/

OpenGL is limited to 4.1 on Apple platforms if I am not mistaken, and will not get updated ever. So you will run into missing features eventually on some platforms, e.g. SSBOs are really nice but you can't them use on Apple devices.

For me, a much stronger argument against OpenGL is that is requires a global state. This often leads to bad design, is miserable to multi-thread, and is rather tedious to port to Vulkan. I have spent several years fighting with multi-threading applications doing all sort of things in OpenGL and it is not great. Yes, Vulkan is extremely painful to set-up and you have to think about a million things you might not really care about directly, but honestly, I would also recommend against starting anything serious in OpenGL. To get your hands wet maybe, as with a couple lines you can get something running..

I think if you're trapped in the Apple ecosystem then Metal is your only production-quality option. But beginner-level learning material for it is quite sparse, so it's better to transition from OpenGL to Metal rather than learning Metal from scratch. (If you're an experienced graphics dev, you should be able to follow up on Metal by just reading their example source code)

There are a few nice books, they are a bit out of date though.

MoltenVK is pretty good I've been told

Nope, the limitations are just too huge for actual usage. Heard Godot Engine tried to use MoltenVK for macOS but experienced too many issues so they just developed a Metal backend.

The fundamental problem is Metal 3 is just too high-level to be able to emulate all of Vulkan's behavior. The new Metal 4 API (which is more low level and similar to Vulkan in many ways) might have improved things recently, but sadly MoltenVK hasn't been rewritten to this new API yet.

Worse than OpenGL though? Haven't had the time to really look into it, probably native Metal is better, yes, but either way it might be easier to port/adapt from Vulkan than from OpenGL (due to similar concepts, no global state, etc)

Yes, hence there is now a new layer, KosmicKrisp.

Sadly, the OP is right, OpenGL is deprecated on a number of platforms and down right removed from others. Please don't learn this now. Vulkan has the shape of every modern graphics api out there, DX included. Learn this or at the very least WebGPU.

A data point: "OpenGL ES is still supported on Android, but is no longer under active feature development. Vulkan offers the following advantages over OpenGL ES" "Vulkan is the preferred Android interface to the GPU. Android 15 and up includes ANGLE as an optional layer for running OpenGL ES on top of Vulkan."

https://developer.android.com/games/develop/vulkan/overview

Android smartphones are notorious in having low-quality Vulkan drivers full of bugs and spec violations... (I'm looking at you Qualcomm!)

A data point: SDL3-GPU maintainers announced that they will not give a shit about Android support, since there's just too many devices that haven't properly implemented the Vulkan spec. (https://github.com/libsdl-org/SDL/issues/12652#issuecomment-...)

Another data point: the current maintainer of the renderer portion of the Godot engine suffering through all the bug reports from Android devices (https://github.com/godotengine/godot/issues?q=is%3Aissue%20s...)

Is the GL driver any better? (It sounds like it is?) It's Direct3D on windows all over again :-(

Nope, as Google has moved to use Angle on top of Vulkan.

Ironically, the Vulkan discord always complains about the bad support of Vulkan on mobile devices, and how OpenGL ES is still better supported.

Wonder how this opinion will age. Won't be surprised if in 10 years OpenGL will be more widely supported and used than Vulkan. It's the Lindy effect after all.

Vulkan is garbage. It's completely needlessly overengineered. Like, you literally have to write 50 lines of code just to allocate GPU memory, which is a one-liner in other APIs like CUDA. These 50 lines include things like heap type shopping and usage flags, that are entirely pointless for modern desktop GPUs. I know there is VMA, but that is a poorly made bandaid over a badly designed API, and barely addresses one out of 100 UX issues with Vulkan. There is a reason so many are sticking with OpenGL. OpenGL is fairly bad, but at least it isn't Vulkan.

But I can agree with CUDA. CUDA is great, in a large part because it actually offers an easy to use API.

This advice is basically like a teenager wanting to play electric guitar to jam out a few rock tunes, but their parents insist on learning classical guitar instead because starting with the fundamentals is the only "real" way to become a great musician. Meanwhile the kid loses interest and moves on to something else.

OpenGL is the only truly cross-platform graphics API out there. Vulkan isn't on Apple platforms, unless you use MoltenVK which implements it on top of Metal. Also I don't know why, but Windows games tend to use Direct3D even though afaik GPU drivers do implement Vulkan on Windows, so there must be a good reason for that.

It's also much easier to grasp than Vulkan, Metal, or Direct3D.

Contrary to urban myths, OpenGL never was a big thing on game consoles.

Windows official API is DirectX, OpenGL and Vulkan use a plugin API, ICD, which is nonetheless DirectX underneath.

https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-hardware/drivers/d...

OpenGL is deprecated and version locked on Mac/iOS.

It's so much easier than Vulkan or writing shaders and the performance is more than good enough for a lot of applications.

I wonder if somebody has written a adapter layer to write old OpenGL and translate it on the fly to Vulkan?

Mesa has Zink which translates OpenGL to Vulkan. AFAIK Asahi uses it because they only wrote a native Vulkan driver for the hardware, no native OpenGL driver.

Apple themselves also don't ship a native OpenGL driver anymore, only a layer that translates OpenGL to Metal.

> It's so much easier than Vulkan or writing shaders

Even if you use OpenGL you still need to write shaders.

    > Even if you use OpenGL you still need to write shaders.

Not in OpenGL 1.x

Shaders aren't the issue with Vulkan. Writing 50 lines of code for things that should be one-liners is.

> write old OpenGL and translate it on the fly to Vulkan

Apple's OpenGL on macOS and iOS has been a shim over Metal for a very long time. The feature set is stuck somewhere between GL 3.x and 4.1 though (e.g. no compute shaders), but not for technical reasons.

In 2026: Yes yes, please please learn this if you're beginning computer graphics. This is basically the One and Only Holy Bible of graphics programming, and dealing with a slightly outdated and weird API doesn't make it worse even a teeny bit. You will never get the same quality of fundamental education material from any of the other tutorials (especially Vulkan ones, since most of them assume you already know the basics and delve straight into writing thousands of lines of code that doesn't even perform better than OpenGL). You need to first learn the really basic things like homogeneous coordinates, matrix transforms, vertex and fragment shaders, various shading models like Phong and PBR, multi-pass rendering, etc, before actually diving into lower-level details where you want to optimize things.

Vulkan and DX12 are currently flawed APIs that are unnecessarily complex and doesn't even match the performance characteristics of current-gen hardware (see the titular post: https://www.sebastianaaltonen.com/blog/no-graphics-api) - if you want to really learn the low-level details you should start diving into something like CUDA or get into graphics driver development (start by reading Mesa open source driver code - which you will then learn why Vulkan is flawed)

> If you're looking for fundamental material, the last thing you want is learning a very (not slightly) outdated and weird API.

I've never seen a more detailed tutorial than LearnOpenGL that actually goes through the concepts of graphics programming thoroughly and actually make things other than just "learn how to use the API". That alone should be enough to cement the site's longevity.

> And OpneGL is worse

It's never late to learn Vulkan / DX12 after learning learnopengl.com! The value of learnopengl.com isn't in the APIs, it's about learning the basic concepts of graphics programming. If you start learning with Vulkan without any prerequisite knowledge, you'll be bogged in low-level details from the start that isn't really related with learning the actual fundamentals. (And you'll probably have to unlearn Vulkan and DX12 again once a new API has surfaced)

> It's never late to learn Vulkan / DX12 after learning learnopengl.com!

Why would you do that? Why would you want to learn an API for graphics cards from the 90s instead of an API for the graphics card from the 2010s?

> The value of learnopengl.com isn't in the APIs, it's about learning the basic concepts of graphics programming.

Then you should learn concepts of graphics programming that isn't defined with code snippets like

    #version 330 core
    struct Material {

?

> And you'll probably have to unlearn Vulkan and DX12 again once a new API has surfaced

Strange. You "have to unlearn a newer API when an even newer one has surfaced, but you should learn this ancient API anyway".

Edit. See also another comment: https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=49027094

Have you actually read the linked site beyond its name? The site is about fundamentals. Yes, it contains OpenGL code, but what it covers is the fundamentals of real time graphics, not just OpenGL API.

> Have you actually read the linked site beyond its name? The site is about fundamentals.

Is it? All the fundamentals are tied to how it's done in OpenGL with somewhat sparse explanations in between. And many "fundamentals" are literally something like

    #version 330 core
    struct Material {

Yes, it is. Most articles there are practically API-agnostic. Just because the code examples happen to be written with OpenGL it doesn't mean it's about OpenGL.

https://learnopengl.com/PBR/Lighting

Even the code snippets start with "#version 330", if you implement these in another tech stack (say vulkan+slang) the relevant shader code would look very similar. It's quite strange to me that you think just because of "#version 330" it's not about fundamentals, tbh.

It's not just because of that. Everything is steeped in OpenGL API. All the "fundamentals" are about OpenGL.

Another link floated to the top of HN discussion just now, and every sibgle link there is better than these "fundamentals": https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=49022038 E.g. "Computer Graphics from Scratch" https://gabrielgambetta.com/computer-graphics-from-scratch/ or Mathematics for Computer Graphics https://www.amazon.co.uk/Mathematics-Computer-Graphics-John-...

Here's the Vulkan version of that:

    #version 450
    struct Material {

Despite the name, GLSL is still used all over the place in Vulkan pipelines. The site teaches you the shader approach (rather than the fixed function pipeline of the 90s) which is what the "modern" Vulkan stack uses too.

That was the absolute minimal example of where "fundamentals" immediately devolve into a very specific code targeting a very specific API. See also sibling comment: https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=49027094

> And OpneGL is worse

I disagree. OpenGL is truly bad, but there is no API in this world as bad as Vulkan.

I still write games using OpenGL for the reasons described in the comments here. I've had very good results with it despite it being "old". It works on my MacBook, PC, and SteamDeck and it has yet to surprise me.

OpenGL works fine, I'm using it in my hobby game engine (shaders, not the old fixed-function OpenGL)

it also will run just fine on windows or Linux using Proton with no issues

if I had to learn Vulkan from scratch instead, that would have been a whole different animal...

Relatedly: could someone recommend a Vulkan introduction for people who don't "just want to make it work"? I understand the fact that Vulkan abstracts away a lot less of the rendering device than OpenGL does – that may be a strength or a weakness, but either way I'd like to understand. It seems a lot of introductions just skip over it all while apologizing for the boilerplate.

I think I once bookmarked an article which takes an interesting approach, namely doing all rendering with Vulkan compute! Does that ring a bell to anyone? I can't find it again. It seems very appealing to me. It may not be the best way to approach graphics, but I know a lot more about computations in general than I do graphics in particular. And knowing Vulkan Compute would help me in lots of ways, so it I can also use it for graphics that's a nice bonus.

At this point GL is an interface, implementations will come and go, but the interface refuses to die. It's still the simplest way to get started, and the browser (WebGL) demands portability for code written against the API.

I remember learning OpenGL back in the day with the NeHe tutorials, coding for the Dreamcast :)

Man, this takes me back! I made a Minecraft clone called Mindacraft in Java using LWJGL (the same framework Minecraft uses) about 6 or 7 years ago using this tutorial. I vividly remember this tutorial being the most useful resource for OpenGL by an order of magnitude, and that was with it being written in a language that actually had pointers and buffers! (Using OpenGL in Java is very weird because you have to use pointers and buffers through a bunch of wrapper classes, and it makes things a lot weirder. It's like using unsafe in Rust if unsafe wasn't even in Rust).

Any recommendations on how to use OpenGL from the CLR (.Net/C#) please?

Typically just find bindings for your language and adapt the startup/bootstrap to match your language syntax. Opengl calls are fairly agnostic especially when you move to the shader logic.

The biggest issue with c# dev is OS specific window management. CLR doesn't have good wayland support yet if you're trying to do this from a modern Linux distro.

I can recommend OpenTK [0]. I've used it recently to create a 3D renderer, and I have not run into any issues.

[0] https://opentk.net/

I've gotten through the Getting Started section and found it to be quite good overall. A few times it seems to make some jumps back and forth between slightly different setups, which might lead to some problems debugging.

I definitely recommend it to anyone interested! Honestly one of the biggest things it helps with is explaining the setup boilerplate for OpenGL.

Honestly, in 2026 I would not really bother with OpenGL. Just start with WebGPU, it's much nicer. You can use it easily on most modern browsers or better can even use native libraries like Dawn or WGPU.

The old primitive API was the best. Who invented the new shader API? They ruined my life.

Same sentiment here. My litmus test is - after creating a window - "how many lines of code does it take to render a triangle?".

With the old OpenGL API you could do this in like 10 lines of code (probably even less with SGI's GL).

With the new/shader-based API, well... https://learnopengl.com/Getting-started/Hello-Triangle

Vulkan - I don't even want to know.

If you want to use glBegin() / glEnd() - like immediate API with modern OpenGL, I reecommend using a library called RLGL (https://github.com/raysan5/raylib/blob/master/src/rlgl.h), from Raylib. You'll feel straight at home!